Institutional Profile and Types of Entrepreneurship Role of National Innovation System Components - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4242 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category Management Essay Level High school Tags: Profile Essay Did you like this example? ABSTRACT This study advances scholarship on the institutions-entrepreneurship relationship. Previous studies propose that the dimensions of a country’s institutional profile (Kostova, 1997) directly impact entrepreneurial activities in general and regardless of the type (Valdez and Richardson, 2013; Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013). Furthermore, while there are several studies indicating that personal characteristics such as age, gender, employment status, household size, marital status may influence the type of entrepreneurship (Robichaud, LeBrasseur, Nagarajan, 2010; Block Wagner, 2010; Verheul Van Mil, 2011? Ashourizadeh, Chavoushi Schà ¸tt, 2014? Jensen, Rezaei, Wherry, 2014), there is a limited knowledge about the role of institutional structures. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Institutional Profile and Types of Entrepreneurship: Role of National Innovation System Components" essay for you Create order To address this gap, in this study, we cross level analyze 10776 individuals from 55 diverse countries to find out how countries institutional factors (e.g. countries’ institutional profile and national innovation system) encourage people to choose specific type of entrepreneurship. Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling, the findings indicate that neither institutional profile nor national innovation system factors solely determine the choice between opportunity motivated entrepreneurship (OME) and necessity motivated entrepreneurship (NME); however, OME tends to be higher in instances when supportive institutional arrangements (cognitive, normative and regulatory) get coupled with national innovation system factors. The study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of embedded agency within the institutional logics perspective. It bridges the literatures on individual entrepreneurship and the institutional logics perspective. Furthermore, the study provides context and evide nce on the impact of entrepreneurial education, access to the latest technology and support from venture capitalists on individuals’ entrepreneurial choice. Keywords: Entrepreneurship; National Innovation System; Country Institutional Profile INTRODCTION Do institutions have equal impact on everyone in the society? Under what circumstances individuals will may act differently in terms of choosing entrepreneurial activity? Which individuals are more likely to start a business to exploit un-exploited or under-exploited opportunity rather than starting a business merely out of necessity? These are key issues in examining how social, economic, cultural, and technological change occur? Yet, the literature is yet to fully address them. Though some scholars have examined the role of institutions (e.g. cognitive, normative and regulatory) on the rate of entrepreneurship (Valdez and Richardson, 2013) no one has explored which institutional factors are responsible for individuals choosing specific type of entrepreneurship. Under the institutional logics perspective, such questions can begin to be answered. The main focus of the institutional logics perspective (e.g. Thornton Ocasio, 1999? Thornton, 2002? Seo Creed, 2002? Thornton, Ocasio, Lounsberry, 2012? Pache Santos, 2012? Friedland, 2013) is in the way broader belief systems may shape the cognition, behavior, identity, and goals of economic actors. Under this view, entrepreneurs demonstrate individual agency subject to complex systems of institutional forces. While, usually individuals comply and agree with dominant institutional forces which shape their willingness and ability to act? Under specific circumstances and within certain contexts, individuals may contrast from each other in terms of engaging in business activities (Battilana D’Aunno, 2009? Lawrence, Suddaby, Leca, 2009). This situation of limited freedom due to institutions is known as embedded agency (Granovetter, 1985? Seo Creed, 2002? Garud Karnoe, 2003? Greenwood Suddaby, 2006? Green, Li, Nohria, 2009). To help address issues relating to embedded agency under the growing institutional logics perspective literature’s view of individuals’ future goals, we examine individuals’ choice in new venture activity. It seems plausible that regulative, cognitive, and normative institutions will affect the types of opportunities people see, the decision to start up a venture, the types of organizations they form, the financing arrangements, the management methods they employ, and the growth they achieve (Valdez and Richardson, 2013; Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013). The institutional context provides the tools, models, and constraints that shape the entrepreneur’s choices about each of these (Valdez and Richardson, 2013). In this study, we address the role that institutional factors play in shaping individuals’ behavior to engage in specific type of entrepreneurship. we do so by examining whether innovation level moderates the relationship between nation’s institutional profile and entrepreneurial choice. Entrepreneurial choice was selected as the appropriate outcome variable because not all types of entrepreneurship have equal impact on countries’ economic development (Acs and Varga, 2005). Results indicate that in countries where the innovation level is higher, supportive and facilitative cognitive, normative and regulatory may encourage potential entrepreneurs to get more engaged with opportunity entrepreneurial activities rather than necessity motivated ones. This study has several implications for the understanding of institutions, entrepreneurship, and opportunity recognition. First, it further demonstrates the value of the institutional logics perspective in explaining the nature of how institutions impact individuals. By highlighting a situation in which agents differ in their responses to institutional forces, the importance of one of the institutional logics perspective’s defining features, embedded agency, is further validated. Second, this study advances understanding about the entrepreneurial opportunity (Shane, 2000). Entrepreneurship scholars have increasingly grappled with whether personal or contextual characteristics matter most for successful entrepreneurship. Third, this study has important implications for the study of nations’ economic development. It does so by highlighting conditions in which national innovation system factors seem to have a stronger impact on potential entrepreneurs’ entrepreneuri al choice. Specifically, supportive institutional profile components coupled with higher levels of entrepreneurial education, access to the latest technology and support from venture capitalists, increase the likelihood of individuals getting engaged in opportunity motivated entrepreneurship rather than necessity motivated ones. THEORY DEVELOPMENT Institutional Logics, Embedded Agency, and Entrepreneurship The institutional logics perspective considers institutions as the outcomes of systems of interconnected and logically cohesive ideologies that have taken root within societies over long periods of time. These systems of institutional logics are socially constructed, historical outlines of material practices, conventions, values, beliefs, and rules by which individuals produce and reproduce their material subsistence, organize time and space, and provide meaning to their social reality (Thornton Ocasio, 1999). In sum, institutional logics are the underlying thought patterns and worldviews that support and shape human behavior. Each institutional logic includes several practices, beliefs, values, and rules. By participating with these institutions, agents gain identity, legitimacy, a basis of attention, a basis for strategy, and goals for the future (Ocasio, 1997). Relying on these insights, the notion of embedded agency is supported arguing that individuals are embedded agents using individual discretion within a complex institutional environment (Thornton, Ocasio, Lounsbury, 2012). In other words, people have freedom, but it’s limited. All the time, individuals’ activities are formed based on the logics they are surrounded with. Individuals end up choosing which goals to pursue based on the institutional logic that shapes their focus of attention (Thornton et al., 2012). Individuals’ focus of attention is shaped by: (a) the degree to which a particular institutional logic has been historically institutionalized within a given society (b) the degree to which agents are embedded in fields consisting of conflicting logics and (c) the situational context(s) (i.e. the immediate time and place) in which individuals find themselves (Thornton, et al., 2012). Institutional arrangements and entrepreneurial activity There have been quite a few studies of the relationship between entrepreneurial activity and what we are calling institutional variables, such as culture, government regulations, and economic policies. These are described later. There have also been a few studies examining the three pillars of institutions around entrepreneurship. Since it is difficult to develop and operationalize measures of institutional pillars, not many studies have investigated the role of institutional arrangements on entrepreneurship. While some of them viewed the Scott’s (1999) three institutional pillars as dependent constructs (e.g., Hirsch, 1997), other studies treated them as separate constructs that have different impacts on entrepreneurial activities (Busenitz, Gomez, Spencer, 2000). This is in line with previous research and arguments by Kostova (1997) and Scott (1995, 1998). Even accepting the argument that the three pillars have considerable conceptual overlap in the institutional literature, the argument by these scholars is that the constructs can be defined to focus on three distinct dimensions of institutions. The notion of a â€Å"country institutional profile† was introduced by Kostova (1997). Kostova believed that nation business behavior could be explained through the understanding of government policies, common shared knowledge by a society or culture, and the societal values and norms. However, this profile must be directed toward a specific sphere of activity or field and cannot be generalized across multiple domains. Busenitz et al. (2000) used Kostova’s approach using college business students to develop and validate measures of the regulative, cognitive, and normative dimensions of a nation’s institutional profile particularly around entrepreneurship activity. Cultural-Cognitive Components The cognitive institutional pillar refers to the people’s collective understandings of the social reality that is used as a reference of meaning within a society. This pillar states that society’s cognitions form the individuals’ interpretations and beliefs (DiMaggio Powell, 1983; Meyer Rowan, 1977; Scott, 1995). â€Å"Traits† research stream literature is an example of cognitive research in entrepreneurship, which goes back to Weber (1904) and McClelland (1961), who used the Protestant work ethic and the need for achievement to explain the apparent differences in entrepreneurship among societies. Thereafter, there has been an extensive body of entrepreneurship research investigating the relationship between different aspects of entrepreneurship and cognitive factors (particularly from entrepreneurial trait perceptive) such as innovativeness (McClelland, 1987; Schumpeter, 1949), risk-propensity (Sexton Bowman, 1983; Shaver Scott, 1991), persistence (Ne ider, 1987), internal locus of control (Shapiro, 1975; Shaver Scott, 1991), desire for personal control (Greenberger Sexton, 1988), need for achievement (McClelland, 1987; Shaver Scott, 1991), self-efficacy (Chen, Greene, Crick, 1998), and energy level ( Sexton Bowman-Upton, 1986). While some studies revealed that some traits may be universal to entrepreneurship activity (e.g., Baum et al., 1993; McGrath, MacMillan, Scheinberg, 1992), others believed that culture plays a significant role in entrepreneurial activity (Thomas Mueller, 2000). Due to the limitations of the individual traits approach, entrepreneurship scholars have shifted their focus toward national level cognitive factors, mostly the elements of national culture. While this approach avoids the issue that intrinsic personal traits can completely predict the individual behavior, the major limitations of studies adopting this approach (e.g., Baum et al., 1993; McGrath et al., 1992; Shane, 1992), are that they are mostly concentrated on the United States and Western Europe (Thomas Mueller, 2000), and are focused on Hofstede’s (1980:25) definition of national culture which is â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another . . . [an d] includes systems of values† (Hayton, George, Zahra, 2002). Addressing these limitations, some recent studies (e.g., Valdez and Richardson, 2013; Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013), have attempted to incorporate measures of cognitive attributes into a broader set of institutional measures. Additionally, using available cross-national data on differences among entrepreneurs’ knowledge, beliefs, and understanding as indicators of differences in country-level cognitive institutions, these recent studies, have tried to lessen the limitations of the existing measures of cultural dimensions. The results acknowledge the notion that the variance of entrepreneurial cognitions across countries will result in different rates of entrepreneurship. However, they do not provide the full picture since they mostly miss other measures of institutional constructs including normative and regulative (Kostova, 1997; Busenitz et al., 2000). Normative Components Social norms, values, and beliefs related to human behavior form the normative institutional pillar (Scott, 1995; Busenitz et al., 2000). Within a society, perspectives are shared socially, embedded and transmitted by people (Kostova, 1997) and they gain legitimacy based on the extent to which the related action is getting accepted (Veciana Urbano, 2008). Translating these insights into entrepreneurship language, norms and values can define the desirability of entrepreneurship as a career within a society. In other words, individuals entrepreneurial intentions are influenced by the attitudes, beliefs and expectations of a social reference group which ca be family, relatives, and also a larger set of social references (national-level) (Krueger, Reilly, Carsrud, 2000; Stenholm, Acs Wuebker, 2013). Indeed, prior studies have found a positive correlation between the rate of new venture creation and a positive view toward entrepreneurs, and a negative correlation between undesirable so cietal view toward those who previously failed and the founding rates within a country. For instance, Lounsbury and Glynn (2001) found that the extent to which successful entrepreneurs are introduced publicly is significantly associated with entrepreneurial activity in a society. In fact, a favorable impression of entrepreneurial activity by educational system and the media can make access to necessary resources easier for entrepreneurs (Verheul, Wennekers, Audretsch, Thurik, 2002; Stenholm, Acs Wuebker, 2013). What makes the normative pillar distinct from the cognitive pillar is that the normative pillar is concerned with what people consider legitimate, acceptable ways of gaining something that has broad societal approval, while the cognitive pillar reflects principles that are believed and internalized by individuals (DiMaggio Powell, 1983). In other words, the normative elements are broader and more collective social pulses of what is legitimate in the view of the society; while the cognitive elements are aggregates of every single individual’s concepts and beliefs that drive individuals (Valdez Richardson, 2013). Regulatory Components The regulatory pillar refers to policies, rules and laws that shape individual behaviors (Scott, 1995; Veciana Urbano, 2008). This dimension of institutional arrangement can either promote or hinder entrepreneurship through defining the extent of risk involved in the formation and start of a new business (Baumol Strom, 2007). Further, regulatory institutions influence entrepreneurship by influencing the access to the resources required by individuals to create new businesses (Busenitz et al., 2000) or even the ease of starting a new business (Verheul et al., 2002). In general, entrepreneurial opportunities are higher in nations with less regulation, free markets and few barriers to entry (El-Namaki, 1998) and small-business sector is larger where business start-up costs are lower (Ayyagari, Beck, Demirguc-Kunt,2007). In countries with unstable regulatory settings and lack of intellectual property rights, respectively, entrepreneurship opportunity cost may increase significantly a nd individuals may be discouraged to specialize or exploit their capabilities to the fullest (Aidis, 2005; Autio Acs, 2010). Further, weak support from regulatory institutions may result in unproductive country-level entrepreneurship (Webb, Tihanyi, Ireland, Sirmon, 2009) and excessive bureaucracy, taxation and other types of regulations have negative effects on entrepreneurial activities and new venture creation (Webb et al. 2009). Fiscal incentives, tax rates, subsidies, labor market regulation, and bankruptcy legislation are other examples of how regulations can directly impact entrepreneurship in a society through determining the rewards and the risks of the various occupational opportunities (Wennekers, Uhlaner, Thurik, 2002). In fact, laws and regulations that restrict economic freedom result in enhancement of the transaction cost for entrepreneurially-oriented individuals who want to launch a new venture. Thus, regulatory arrangements can be set in a way to manipulate this equation to make â€Å"new venture creation† easier for entrepreneurs (McMullen, Bagby Palich, 2008). Types of Entrepreneurial Activity In the previous sections, it was mentioned that countries institutional profile components (cognitive, normative and regulatory) have positive impacts on the rate of entrepreneurship in general. Entrepreneurial activity can be conceptualized as either opportunity or necessity motivated. Opportunity motivated entrepreneurship activities are embarked upon in the spirit of innovation (Wennekers Thurik, 1999) and profit and growth (Carland, Hoy, Boulton, Carland, 1984) or may entail the leveraging of existing information in a new way (Kirzner, 1973, 1985, 1997). On the other hand, a necessity-motivated venture may be undertaken to provide employment and meet financial obligations out of economic necessity (Reynolds et al., 2002). An opportunity-motivated entrepreneur might create a new company and establish a new venture even he or she may have other occupations to satisfy their financial needs. On the other side, a necessity-motivated entrepreneur would generally start a new business to provide self-employment. Based on these insights, it could be argued that opportunity-motivated entrepreneurship has the potential to advance a country’s economy, while necessity entrep reneurship mainly sustains it. Previous research has indicated that necessity- and opportunity-motivated entrepreneurship should be considered separately when attempting to understand how context relates to the level of entrepreneurial activity (Valdez Richardson, 2013). Institutions appear to shape both the type and the level of entrepreneurial activity. In a study using 2001 GEM data, two elements of the culture-cognitive pillar were significantly related to these two branches of entrepreneurship (Morales-Gualdrà ³n Roig, 2005). Specifically, when respondents felt that they had the skills, knowledge, and experience to start a business, they were more likely to engage in both opportunity- and necessity-motivated entrepreneurship. When respondents were fearful of starting a business, they were less likely to engage in either type of entrepreneurship. The environmental context of countries may support one type of entrepreneurship more than the other (Valdez and Richardson, 2013). Opportunity motivated entreprene urship is more consistent with the Schumpeterian innovations which contribute significantly to economic growth through providing greater job growth, exports, and exploitation of new market niches (McMullen, Bagby Palich, 2008). While previous studies believe that opportunity entrepreneurship has a positive significant effect on economic development, Acs and Varga (2005) go beyond that and argue that necessity motivated entrepreneurship has no effect (Acs and Varga, 2005). Accordingly, it would be critical for countries to encourage their potential entrepreneurs to choose opportunity motivated entrepreneurship over necessity motivated ones. The environmental context of countries may support one type of entrepreneurship more than the other (Valdez and Richardson, 2013), so it can be assumed that set of institutional structures that provide an opportune environment for innovations and knowledge-driven economic growth would increase the probability of people being engaged more in opportunity motivated entrepreneurship. Necessity/Opportunity entrepreneurship and country-level innovation As it was described earlier, necessity entrepreneurship comprises of individuals who decide on entrepreneurship without considering any entrepreneurial opportunity, because they do not have a better employment alternative, and opportunity entrepreneurship, which constitutes the voluntary decision to enter the entrepreneurial career in order to exploit an unexploited or underexploited entrepreneurial opportunity, either imitative (Kirznerian) or innovative (Schumpeterian), even if other employment alternatives are available (Reynolds et al., 2002) Accordingly, it can be expected that the necessity entrepreneurship and opportunity entrepreneurship may have different relationships with level of innovation, since the two activities are fundamentally different (cf. Reynolds et al. 2002). In the case of necessity entrepreneurship, it is highly likely that the entrepreneurial action is related to a negligible extent of innovation, and therefore, that necessity entrepreneurship either has no significant relationship or even a negative relationship with innovation, when the aggregated national level is taken into consideration (Mro?ewski Kratzer, 2016). This tendency is a result of the fact that necessity entrepreneurs, e.g. unemployed persons, tend to have less human capital and entrepreneurial talent (Lucas 1978; Thurik et al. 2008) and are less likely to sustain growth-oriented firms (Wong et al. 2005; Shane 2009). Necessity entrepreneurship may therefore be better classified as self-employment rather than as growth entrepreneurship (Anokhin and Wincent 2012). If a country’s entrepreneurship structure is dominated by this kind of unproductive entrepreneurship, growth-oriented entrepreneurial strategies (e.g. innovation) are not likely to be prevalent among ent repreneurs, which results in less innovation on the national level. Consequently, the relationship between innovation and necessity entrepreneurship is either insignificant or negative (Mrozewski, Kratzer, 2016) On the other side, opportunity entrepreneurs have the motivations to advance their economic, social or mental status through the pursuit of a certain entrepreneurial opportunity. It is very common for opportunity entrepreneurs to give up employment alternatives and in effect face high opportunity costs. This is why opportunity motivated entrepreneurship is characterized by high levels of risk. This situation translates into a high degree of motivation, a strong goal orientation as well as a more sophisticated business strategy (e.g. innovation), which guarantees satisfying returns in order to level opportunity costs (Mrozewski, Kratzer, 2016). At an aggregated level, therefore, it is expected that countries with lower innovation levels will have relatively high necessity-driven entrepreneurial activity and countries with higher innovation levels will have relatively high opportunity-driven entrepreneurial activity. National innovation system The theoretical framework that allows scholars to identify the distinctive aspects of a nations innovation environment that provides people with more opportunities is reflected in National Innovation Systems which refers to the flow of knowledge, technology and information among people, enterprises and institutions which is key to the innovative process at the national level (OECD, 1996, Bartholomew, 1997). Country-specific general and structural components of society (such as political and educational systems) influence the accumulation and diffusion of knowledge required for innovation. Institutional perspectives mention two ways in which national institutional arrangements impact country patterns of innovation. First, the societal institutions which support industrial innovation vary substantially country by country. For example, in many countries, the policies and practices of a nations universities and government research institutes are shaped by the nations singular historical development. In other words, since technology-driven industries are often supplied by universities and research institutes for knowledge and human capital, the technological performance of a countrys firms is influenced by the features of these institutions (Ergas, 1987; Nelson, 1993; Porter, 1990). Second, national context influences the institutional arrangements and behavioral patterns of firms and indivi duals. For example, the organization of work and patterns of communication within and between firms, or between firms and universities reflect broader societal characteristics that have been imprinted on firms and institutionalized over time (Kogut 1991; Powell and DiMaggio 1991). A country’s innovative performance extremely relies on the way these elements work with each other to create and diffuse knowledge and technology. For example, public research institutes, academia and industry serve as research producers carrying out RD activities. On the other hand, governments either central or regional play the role of coordinator among research producers in terms of their policy instruments, visions and perspectives for the future (Bartholomew, 1997). Furthermore, in order to enhance innovation level in a country, innovative actors must get coupled with each other and the government has to promote and activate trust among the different innovation actors (Chung, 2002). These corporations could take place in forms of joint research, personnel exchanges, cross patenting, and purchase of equipment (OECD, 1997). NIS has been captured in different ways in previous studies (Bartholomew, 1997, Godin, 2009). Examples include capital market actors like venture capitalists; a skilled labor force, laws related to the use of information technology as well as the availability of the latest technologies; and the proximity of universities (Bruno and Tyebjee, 1982; Lee, Florida Acs, 2004; van De Ven, 1993). In following section, I am going to see how the components that shape a nation’s innovation performance, affect the likelihood of potential entrepreneurs getting involved in opportunity motivated entrepreneurship, which is significantly related to the level of innovation in a country. Entrepreneurship Education and Training There are several arguments for why individuals differences in terms of education play an important role in explaining the discovery of and opportunities. There is a network argument that relates education to opportunity recognition. Whereas prior research has often focused on how access to resources is important after opportunities for business creation have been recognized (Steven- son and Jarillo, 2007), Arenius Clercq (2005) argue that opportunities are recognized by some individuals and not by others based on their differential access to resources. More specifically, they reason that individuals education may enhance opportunity recognition through the facilitation of access to knowledge, e.g., connections to other knowledgeable others such as alumni network contacts (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Burt, 1992). It can be also argued that individuals educational level will positively affect the likelihood to perceive opportunities because highly-educated individuals have a broader knowledge base to draw from and thus a higher likelihood that they can relate this knowledge to potential entrepreneurial opportunities (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990). training and education specifically in the field of entrepreneurship, in one hand, enhances populations ability to recognize and pursue entrepreneurial economic opportunities and on the other hand provides people with the necessary technical skills and competencies required to launch new start-up firms (Hynes, 1996; Henry, Hill Leitch, 2005). Based on the arguments above, it can be hypothesized that: Hypothesis 1: Countries’ institutional profile will be more significantly positively associated with OME in countries with higher levels of Entrepreneurship Training and Education. University–Industry Collaboration The collaboration between universities and the industry is increasingly perceived as a vehicle to enhance innovation through knowledge exchange. The collaboration between industries and universities is defined as interaction between any parts of the higher educational system such as universities and industry aiming mainly to encourage knowledge and technology exchange (Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013). Countries vary in the extent to which firms collaborate with research institutions and higher educational system, reflecting differences in the commercial orientation of academia (Kenney, 1986; Ergas, 1987). Promoting university–industry collaborations results in improvemnets in innovation and economic competitiveness at institutional levels (e.g. countries and sectors) through knowledge exchange between academic and commercial domains (Perkmann et al., 2013). Additionally, linkage between universities and industries has been accepted as a determining tool for enhancing organizational capacity in open innovation — where an organization employs external networks in developing innovation and knowledge (Dess Shaw, 2001), as a complementary option to traditional internal RD (Harvey Tether, 2003). Summarizing these arguments, it can be stated that, collaboration between universities and industry is largely seen as one approach to improve innovation in the economy by facilitating the flow and utilization of technology-related knowledge and experience across sectors (Inzelt, 2004; Perkmann, Neely Walsh, 2011). Since, opportunity motivated entrepreneurship is characterized by innovation level, it can be assumed that higher levels of university–industry collaborations, may induce higher opportunity motivated entrepreneurial activities. This leads to the second hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: Countries’ institutional profile will be more significantly positively associated with OME in countries with higher levels of University–Industry Collaboration. Availability of Latest Technology The most traditional way that comes to our minds in terms of knowledge flow in the innovation system may be the diffusion of technology as new equipment and machinery. Nations vary substantially in manner in which technology is diffused within the society (Bartholomew, 1997). In some nations technology diffusion is considered to be an explicit part of the governments mandate; diffusion-oriented innovation policies†. Accordingly, programs, institutions and structural linkages are established by government expressly for this purpose of facilitating industrys appropriation of new scientific developments (Ergas, 1987; Ostry, 1990). Most studies show that technology diffusion at country level has positive impacts on productivity and innovation. The dissemination of technology is also shown to be as important as RD investments to innovative performance in many cases (Lundvall, 2007)

Applying A Rolling Admissions Process - 1494 Words

As mentioned earlier, when our prospect applies to the four selected colleges from Figure 6.4, they will utilize the LSAC as mandated from each institution. That provides for straightforward management of those applications with submission dates synchronizing with the University of Florida – the earliest one. That way, all institutions can be concurrently applied rather than piecemeal this process. Anyway, it turns out that some of the law schools in question employ a rolling admissions process where the institution can potentially notify applicants anytime inside a window of an admissions decision. As a result, if all material checks for completeness and accuracy, doesn’t it make sense to submit all materials as early as possible?†¦show more content†¦To begin with, applicants must send official college transcripts using the Registrar at specific points in the process; initially as preliminary transcripts, followed by periodic updates and finally after gra duation. Likewise, registrants having professional appraisals directed from third-party principals on their behalf utilize the Letter of Recommendation (LOR) and Evaluation services ultimately bundling them with other CAS documentation. Figure 6.5 below provides a list of many or most requirements and optional items that might accompany our prospect’s applications, including the transcript release forms for the Registrar and evaluation forms for individuals writing assessments discussed above. They will, of course, vary per each school’s admissions instructions. Sometimes people spend so much time developing elaborate strategies and plans that they overlook the obvious. An applicant should anticipate positive events just as diligently as preparing for failure (via a Plan B). The significance of a rolling admissions process has the potential for receiving notifications at different points-in-time. 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Analysis of “The Yellow Wallpaper” Free Essays

string(31) " was and is extremely popular\." CHARLOTEE PERKINS GILLMAN THE YELLOW WALLPAPER (1892) The cult of true womanhood defined women as â€Å"ladies†(pure, diligent). When we talk about American woman, we have to specify their religion, sexual orientation, race, social class (it is therefore essentialist to talk about â€Å"women† in general. Depending on the group which they are in, certain coordinates are applicable. We will write a custom essay sample on Analysis of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Yellow Wallpaper is about a white, protestant, heterosexual woman at the end of the 19th century in the higher middle class. Gilman wanted to obtain more freedom and in order to do so, she had to rebel against the most important institution oppressing her: MARRIAGE. 1) Nowadays, the typical happy family is outdated and doesn’t exist. Gilman lived at a time when the perfect family was imposed on women (spinsters and bachelors were frowned upon in protestant society). The upper class women were brought up with the sole aim of being good housewives and mothers. The idea of a woman reading a book was frowned upon in society and they were only encouraged to read moralising and exemplary tales (eg. The angel in the house). Young girls were accompanied by a â€Å"chaperone†, who had the role of looking after and policy them. The Yellow Wallpaper takes place in a Victorian house and attic which used to be a nursery. Spaces in the house were GENDERED (some spaces were meant for men and some for women: kitchen, sitting room for women and library for men. The upper stories of the house become a gothic territory: THE ATTIC = discarded things This space is exploited from a literary point of view, whereby women who don’t fit into the cult of true womanhood are enclosed /imprisoned (= old object that doesn’t work). The most important example of this is JANE EYRE (Mrs. Rochester is locked in the attic and dies in a fire so Mr. Rochester could Marry Jane, even though he became blind/She is imprisoned due to the colour of her skin. The husband can? t show her). This is a literary image and symbol to represent the fact that women become part of the trash in the attic, not valid for anything. In the Yellow Wallpaper, the fact that the attic used to be a nursery is significant. Her husband is a doctor. The story is written in the 1st person: apparent diary, which depicts/reports the protagonist? s descent into madness. Language tries to recreate her mental breakdown. Any woman in 19th century who might have shown a rebellious attitude to the patriarchal culture was considered to be mad). The Yellow Wallpaper is a short story. The woman in the ex-nursery is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. . Everything that happens in the story must be understood figuratively. The doctrines (cult of true womanhood) that constructed what a woman was at the time are â€Å"cultural constructs†. Even children are culturally constructed . Our identity is changeable and flexible according to our context. Marriage is another social construct/fought against feminists. The nursery becomes a symbol of the attic (madwoman in the attic), in which women become invisible. ____________________________________________________________ ___________________________ *BOSTON MARRIAGES†two women lived together all of their lives, but were not considered as lesbians (society simply recognised the fact that women could live together and help each other). Homosexuality wasn’t recognised officially and would only be at the end of the 19th century. Oscar Wild was the 1st homosexual who was openly out. (1) Marriage is not an imprisonment for everybody. For white middle-class women in US it was a chance to legitimise them in society, while black women weren’t allowed to get married. How can she find a way to express herself? She writes on the wallpaper, because that? s the only paper left. Fashion the way we dress tells others about who we are: we are who we dress. We are guided by people who tell us what is in fashion and in the 19th century high class women were advised to wear certain outfits: corsets were controversial at the time because they deformed the female body. Women? s bodies were constructed by fashion. Bicycles gave women new freedom and so did â€Å"bloomers† – a way of giving women more freedom of movement. Catherine E. Beecher (1842) wrote novels and believed in the cult of true womanhood. She wrote about domestic economy. Feminism: a) of difference b) of equality Feminism of DIFFERENCE: Men and women are not the same (men-public sphere/ women – private sphere). Women are not inferior to men, they can achieve the same thing in different ways. Women are morally superior to men and take control of the house: Beecher? s ideas. Feminism of EQUALITY: Men and women should be equal in front of the law: suffrage movement. Feminism of difference was conservative but stated that women should be educated as their role would influence future generations (children). â€Å"American woman? s home†, â€Å"Art of cookery†. Women were taught to be good housewives. The family state and home was a heavenly kingdom on earth. Mothers were supposed to be self-sacrificing (mission: self-denial). Until the end of the 18th century women didn’t exist in terms of sex. Women were â€Å"deformed man† (clitoris=small penis, womb=2 aborted balls). Scientific discourse created sex and indoctrinated the world against women? s capacity. If women were â€Å"aborted men†, this meant that they would never have the intellectual capacity of men either. In the Yellow Wallpaper, the man is a doctor because they had the capacity to define women. The protagonist is defined by her husband? s scientific discourse. He has the power to identify what is happening to her and tell her what she is (nothing exists until doctors name it. ) We always find dichotomy: man-woman/night-day. If we believe that all women are feminist, this is an example of ESSENTIALISM. Not all women are the same: gender is a cultural construct and women are indoctrinated into behaving in a certain way. The author fights against MARRIAGE. She is a pre-feminist (feminism of difference). For a long time, the story has been considered as autobiographical (= confessional mode), as these sold books. In Protestant society, public confession was and is extremely popular. You read "Analysis of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†" in category "Papers" Confessional literature has always been sold well in the US and this is the reason that Perkins wrote† Why I wrote The Yellow Wallpaper†. Originally, the world â€Å"wallpaper† was hyphenated†wall† covered by â€Å"paper† (important connotations): 1st footnote. In short stories, everything is relevant. At the time of writing, women were considered as side of â€Å"hysteria†: that the womb was irritated/inflamed. People believed that when women behaved in a way that they weren’t expected to, they were sick (hysteria). Women were expected to fulfil some roles. This â€Å"irritation or the womb† made people believe that a woman? s reproductive system was at threat and might stop working. Because of this, reading was â€Å"dangerous† for women because it excited the mind and therefore the womb. At the time of writing, there was a physician who said that high-class women should have a REST CURE to relax. He forbade any kind of intellectual work(reading and writing), to go into a kind of lethargic state. The confessional tome of her introduction makes readers automatically believe her. Women found it hard to get credibility and a doctor told them nothing was wrong with them. They were expected to get married and have babies (live a life as domestic as possible). Gilman wanted to show people how important it was for white and high-class women to work. (white women were fighting against marriage as a bourgeoisie ethos at the same time , black women wanted to fight to be able to get married and embrace the ethos. In her introduction, all of the autobiographical information is false (she never was at the brink of insanity because of a physician? s advice. She also states that her literature is therapy, as it â€Å"saved† a woman after she read it. This is also false. ANALYSIS OF THE YELLOW WALLPAPER Title yellow: connotation of sickness – tuberculosis (yellowish: blood doesn ’t flow through your veins. ) Some people have interpreted the text as a criticism of Asian immigrants arriving on the shores of the west Pacific to work as railroad workers (S. fran. Bay – Angel Islan) Chinese â€Å"carved poems† about the clash between their expectations about the American dream and their reality. wall-paper: women enclosed by the paper 1st person narrator who tells the reader what she is feeling from the start to the end of the piece. Syntax becomes increasingly repetitive and we see a stream of consciousness, a non-mediated representation of thoughts. Progression in the story reflects mental breakdown of main character. (syntax, story) Biologism, essentialism way women are indoctrinated into patriarchal culture – brain washing). one expects that in marriage† she starts her role (perverted by patriarchal society). Later, she tries to fight against it, but there is no way to escape, so she goes mad. John doctor/scientist (against superstition) *scientific world has the power to define her: enemy (discourse) Surrounded by a male text who defines what is happening to her (hysterical tendency) (dead paper written and lost ). Sometimes it is easier for men to find a reason that they know (= prescribe a solution) than to find out the reason behind the problem and question their beliefs (doubt their own knowledge). She has 2 possibilities: to believe what they say or go against it (when problems arise) Forbidden to work not house work (upper-class) Contradictions expresses desire and says she is not permitted to do so. Anything she does, feels, wants, etc. Will be questioned by John and explained by science and rationality. John: logic, coherence, science, etc. Her: opposite Control in American society, the only way to rule is to control one? s desires. When we are out of control, we became responsible for our failures. If we are not successful, we lack self-control. Everything in society falls onto the shoulders of the individual. American dream: whatever you want, you will achieve. (worst possible thing: to be a loser) Our protagonist cannot understand that there are some things that are out of control. Clash between what she wants and the burdens of society. On the one hand, she cannot recognize that there are 2 confronting Johns: nice and loving/ controlling. To make us blame ourselves for the blame of others in the worst situation that we can find ourselves in. Nursery he infantalises her and deprives her of all responsibilities. At the top of the house mad oman in the attic (to hide her). Writing = LIBERATION Baby: John doesn’t allow her to be a wife or mother. Little by little, the paper becomes a protagonist and a reflection of the protagonist? s mind. As she is forbidden to write, she has to project her thoughts through the paper. * Page 652 She is projecting her fears, her deepest feelings, obsessions, repressions: a gothic story comes out using monsters, horrendous monsters. That creature is herself. She? s projecting herself on the paper. The paper becomes the text and the room is the symbol of her min, everything is torn (rascado/roto). There comes John? s sister†¦ : everything we? ve talked about (white, high class women), a very few women. Here we have the example that all women don’t think they have to rebel against this patriarchal system. John? s sister is like many other women, she is happy being indoctrinated in this patriarchal system. A woman against woman. The text makes it clear. The protagonist is the rebellious while the other is happy with the system. We can? t universalise. Enthusiastic housekeeper: maybe she? s single. She? s backing up her brother and she is not helping the protagonist. As we can see, not all the women were rebelling against that repression. * Page 653 John? s sister – Tennice : patriarchal –minded woman (cult of true womanhood). Conspires with other 2 male characters against protagonist (also believes her creativity and writing is making herself sick). no possibility of sisterhood or gender – solidarity because John? s sister condemns writing and is also the protagonist? s enemy. The challenge to break out of patriarchal society and not feel guilty is what drives her mad. Contrast between rationality that ruled society (=logic, symmetry, etc. and the female body (curves, illogical) Little by little, her syntax becomes more shortened, to represent what is going on in her mind. The protagonist is not strong enough to break through the layers that John has suppressed her in. She has to die within herself. She puts all of the burden on herself and is unable to escape from John. Rationally, she accepts what is happening, but physica lly, she cannot: clash. * Page 655 1st time she sees a woman in the paper. Bit by bit she feels more identified with the woman in the paper (journey of self-identification). The paper is a projection of her madness. In imagining things, we project our fears. The woman on the paper wants to escape and as the protagonist couldn? t get divorced (social class problems), madness was her only way to â€Å"free† herself. And it is like a woman: she says freely that the wallpaper is a woman. From now onwards: a progressive journey to self-identification and that means madness. The crazier she gets the more self-aware she becomes. Moon: signifies femininity Parallel movement: husband and sister-in-law look at her differently because she is losing ground and her stability (1st p. narrative). At the same time, she starts to distrust them. Process in crescendo. Pattern: patriarchal society In the end, she pulls down the patriarchal paper and is free but mad. * Page 660 The woman in the pattern was creeping and now she creeps. She? s narrating what the husband is doing. John is desperate. In the end: the door locked, he opens it later and he stops short: that is John? s vision. She is no longer a woman, she identifies with the projection of herself, woman escaping and creeping in the wallpaper. However, she has changed the meaning of that paper, she has achieved freedom. The paper is a way she got liberation – she is mad. How to cite Analysis of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, Papers

Alexander Pushkin free essay sample

Pushkin was both a romanticist in his works and not, all at the same time. Beginning at age fifteen, he published poems and prose, and eventually his novel, Eugene Onegin. He is the William Shakespeare of Russia, influencing even the language by supplementing with his own vocabulary. He wrote everything from lyric poetry, to short stories, even personal essays and journalism pieces. Many of his works represent a highly romanticized view of the world. For example, â€Å"A Little Bird† refers to freedom as though it is the one thing that can console him. â€Å"Eastern Song† is about a person who inspired him by his or her appearance and demeanor, made him feel bliss and was a muse. These both represent romanticism because they are about things that not everyone gets to experience, and it uses broad concepts of love and freedom, rather than a more realistic view of things which gets down to the finer points of life, the bad side of freedom and the sorrow of lost love. We will write a custom essay sample on Alexander Pushkin or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, he also tackled realist ideas too, and drew them into other poems. For example, â€Å"Demon† is about a feeling that Pushkin had that made him feel dishonest to his country, because it made him look at the darker side of life, rather than the glory and splendor of the mask over top of life. And his poem â€Å"Goblin of the Steppes,† tells the story of storms upon his home, upon his happiness. A longer poem, this one repeats the line, â€Å"sad is the heaven, sad is the night,† emphasizing the darkness Pushkin could see on the rise all around him. Arion† could be taken as either way, from its dark story of a sunken ship as realistic, or from its romantic side as the sailors collapse on shore, all dead but at peace in the ocean. Even though it conquers a realistic topic of shipwreck without actual romance, it also seems to glorify it as a slightly romantic way of dying, drifting to the bottom of the sea, never to be seen alive and walking again. His works are very complicated, Eugene Onegin, a novel in verse, takes up two volumes in translation. Eugene Onegin was published serially under the tsar’s nose, while a play of his, Boris Gudonov could not be published due to the strict rules of the tsar. His works include elements from all over Russian literature, from older wording to newer, stylized writing. They vary in subject, tone and mood, from simple to more deep and complex, each in their own right. Alexander Pushkin was an author whose works followed the changes in the literature of the time. In the beginning, he wrote very romanticized pieces, but as things grew harder in Russia, his works began to reflect more realistic aspects, however remaining in his specific style.